Nature News -- ScienceDaily

Nature. Read the latest scientific research on the natural world, ecology and climate change.

Flowers unfold with surprising precision, despite unruly genes

Mon, 26 May 2025 15:01:52 EDT

Flowers grow stems, leaves and petals in a perfect pattern again and again. A new study shows that even in this precise, patterned formation in plants, gene activity inside individual cells is far more chaotic than it appears.

Baboons walk in line for friendship, not survival, new study finds

Tue, 03 Jun 2025 11:48:13 EDT

Researchers have discovered that baboons walk in lines, not for safety or strategy, but simply to stay close to their friends.

Mining the deep could mute the songs of sperm whales

Tue, 24 Jun 2025 09:07:00 EDT

Exploration for deep-sea minerals in the Clarion Clipperton Zone threatens to disrupt an unexpectedly rich ecosystem of whales and dolphins. New studies have detected endangered species in the area and warn that mining noise and sediment could devastate marine life that relies heavily on sound. With so little known about these habitats, experts urge immediate assessment of the risks.

The global rule that predicts where life thrivesâ??and where it fails

Tue, 10 Jun 2025 11:25:41 EDT

What if all life on Earth followed a surprisingly simple pattern? New research shows that in every region, species tend to cluster in small hotspots and then gradually thin out. This universal rule applies across drastically different organisms and habitats from trees to dragonflies, oceans to forests. Scientists now believe environmental filtering shapes this global distribution, providing new tools to predict how life responds to climate change and biodiversity threats.

Toxic tides: Centuries-old mercury is flooding the arctic food chain

Fri, 13 Jun 2025 01:39:26 EDT

Despite falling global mercury emissions, mercury levels in Arctic wildlife continue to rise. A new study reveals that ocean currents are delivering legacy mercury pollution from distant regions like China to the Arctic, where it accumulates in animals and ecosystems.

Living libraries could save our food

Thu, 29 May 2025 12:47:29 EDT

Scientists have pioneered a new way to breed climate-resilient crops faster by combining plant genebank data with climate and DNA analysis. The method, tested on sorghum, could speed up global efforts to secure food supplies in a changing climate.

DNA floating in the air tracks wildlife, viruses -- even drugs

Tue, 03 Jun 2025 11:48:22 EDT

In the heart of Dublin, scientists have discovered that the air holds more than melodies and Guinness-infused cheer it carries invisible traces of life, from wildlife to drugs and even human diseases. Using high-powered air filters and environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis, researchers vacuumed up the city s air and uncovered genetic material from cannabis, magic mushrooms, and pathogens. This emerging technology, which doesn t require direct contact with organisms, could revolutionize how we monitor ecosystems, track diseases, and even locate endangered species all from the sky above. It's science fiction turned science fact, and it s changing what we thought was possible from a simple breath of air.

Nearly five million seized seahorses just 'tip of the iceberg' in global wildlife smuggling

Wed, 28 May 2025 13:22:40 EDT

Close to five million smuggled seahorses worth an estimated CAD$29 million were seized by authorities over a 10-year span, according to a new study that warns the scale of the trade is far larger than current data suggest. The study analyzed online seizure records from 2010 to 2021 and found smuggling incidents in 62 countries, with dried seahorses, widely used in traditional medicine, most commonly intercepted at airports in passenger baggage or shipped in sea cargo.

El Niño and La Niña climate swings threaten mangroves worldwide

Fri, 23 May 2025 12:04:56 EDT

New international research demonstrates global-scale patterns in how El Ni o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) influences mangrove growth and degradation. Previously, impacts had only been documented at individual sites, such as a dramatic die-off in northern Australia in 2015 when more than 40 million mangrove trees perished along a 1,200-mile stretch of coastline.

How marine plankton adapts to a changing world

Fri, 23 May 2025 14:19:09 EDT

Plankton may be tiny, but they play an important role in the ocean. As the foundation of marine ecosystems, they support ocean food webs and help regulate Earth's climate by storing carbon. While lab studies have shown plankton can adjust their chemistry in response to environmental changes, a new global study reveals how these adaptations occur in the real ocean.

Different phases of evolution during ice age

Fri, 23 May 2025 12:04:47 EDT

Cold-adapted animals started to evolve 2.6 million years ago when the permanent ice at the poles became more prevalent. There followed a time when the continental ice sheets expanded and contracted and around 700,000 years ago the cold periods doubled in length. This is when many of the current cold-adapted species, as well as extinct ones like mammoths, evolved.

How does digestion affect molecular analysis of owl pellets?

Tue, 27 May 2025 18:09:14 EDT

Researchers found that digestion in hawks and owls can alter the results of isotopic analysis in pellets and droppings.

Research shows how solar arrays can aid grasslands during drought

Mon, 02 Jun 2025 15:47:19 EDT

New research shows that the presence of solar panels in Colorado's grasslands may reduce water stress, improve soil moisture levels and -- particularly during dry years -- increase plant growth by about 20% or more compared to open fields.

A root development gene that's older than root development

Mon, 26 May 2025 15:01:44 EDT

A gene that regulates the development of roots in vascular plants is also involved in the organ development of liverworts -- land plants so old they don't even have proper roots. The discovery highlights the fundamental evolutionary dynamic of co-opting, evolving a mechanism first and adopting it for a different purpose later.

Eating an array of smaller fish could be nutrient-dense solution to overfishing

Tue, 03 Jun 2025 14:12:04 EDT

To satisfy the seafood needs of billions of people, offering them access to a more biodiverse array of fish creates opportunities to mix-and-match species to obtain better nutrition from smaller portions of fish.

Tiny waspâ??s shocking reproductive trick may transform global agriculture

Sun, 15 Jun 2025 02:13:07 EDT

Aphid-hunting wasps can reproduce with or without sex, challenging previous assumptions. This unique flexibility could boost sustainable pest control if its hidden drawbacks can be managed.

Stirling research could extend biopesticide effectiveness

Tue, 27 May 2025 12:43:19 EDT

Alterations to the diet of pests could impact how quickly they can adapt to biopesticides.

These frozen wolf cubs ate a woolly rhinoâ??and changed what we know about dogs

Tue, 24 Jun 2025 09:24:09 EDT

Two Ice Age wolf pups once thought to be early dogs have been identified as wild wolves, thanks to detailed DNA and chemical analysis. Surprisingly, their last meals included woolly rhinoceros meatâ??an unusually large prey itemâ??hinting that ancient wolves might have been bigger than todayâ??s. Their well-preserved bodies also shed light on wolf pack behavior and Ice Age environments.

New velvet worm species a first for the arid Karoo

Wed, 28 May 2025 13:22:24 EDT

A new species of velvet worm, Peripatopsis barnardi, represents the first ever species from the arid Karoo, which indicates that the area was likely historically more forested than at present. In the Cape Fold Mountains, we now know that every mountain peak has an endemic species. This suggests that in unsampled areas there are likely to be additional novel diversity, waiting to be found.

Scientists find immune molecule that supercharges plant growth

Fri, 06 Jun 2025 20:54:13 EDT

Scientists have discovered that a molecule known for defending animal immune systems called itaconate also plays a powerful role in plants. Researchers showed that itaconate not only exists in plant cells but actively stimulates growth, such as making corn seedlings grow taller. This surprising crossover between plant and animal biology may unlock new, natural ways to boost agriculture and even improve human health.

Nordic studies show the significance of old-growth forests for biodiversity

Tue, 27 May 2025 12:46:32 EDT

Researchers conducted a systematic review of 99 scientific publications that compared the flora or fauna of old-growth forests, managed forests and clearcut sites in boreal Europe. The reviewed studies showed large differences in the species communities inhabiting these forest types. The species richness of full-canopy forests increases as the forest gets older. Clearcut sites are also species-rich, but they are inhabited by a distinct set of species in comparison to full-canopy forests.

How madagascarâ??s lizards became the islandâ??s last hope for reforestation

Tue, 10 Jun 2025 00:40:54 EDT

After millions of years of evolutionary isolation, Madagascar developed an unparalleled array of wildlife, and recent research has uncovered an unsung ecological hero: the lizard. Though often dismissed in studies of seed dispersal, lizards in Madagascar have proven to be vital agents of endozoochory, consuming fruits and spreading the seeds of over 20 plant species. Surprisingly, their seed choices differ from those of the dominant lemurs, suggesting an unrecognized ecological role. Even more striking, these lizards persist in degraded environments where larger frugivores can t, hinting at their crucial function in restoring Madagascar s forests.

Rock record illuminates oxygen history

Thu, 29 May 2025 14:01:25 EDT

A new study reveals that the aerobic nitrogen cycle in the ocean may have occurred about 100 million years before oxygen began to significantly accumulate in the atmosphere, based on nitrogen isotope analysis from ancient South African rock cores. These findings not only refine the timeline of Earth's oxygenation but also highlight a critical evolutionary shift, where life began adapting to oxygen-rich conditions -- paving the way for the emergence of complex, multicellular organisms like humans.

Skull study shows Chicago's rodents are rapidly evolving

Thu, 26 Jun 2025 09:28:31 EDT

Urban wildlife is evolving right under our noses â?? and scientists have the skulls to prove it. By examining over a centuryâ??s worth of chipmunk and vole specimens from Chicago, researchers discovered subtle yet significant evolutionary changes in these rodentsâ?? skulls, seemingly in response to city life.

Frozen in time: Transparent worms keep genes in sync for 20 million years

Fri, 20 Jun 2025 03:15:23 EDT

Even after 20 million years of evolutionary separation, two tiny worm species show astonishingly similar patterns in how they turn genes on and off. Scientists mapped every cell s activity during development and found that genes essential to basic functions like muscles and digestion remained largely unchanged. Meanwhile, genes linked to sensing the environment or brain-like functions showed more variation. This high-resolution comparison of every cell between species may help unlock mysteries of how life evolves and adapts without always changing how it looks.

Managing surrogate species, providing a conservation umbrella for more species

Fri, 23 May 2025 12:04:39 EDT

A new study shows that monitoring and managing select bird species can provide benefits for other species within specific regions.

Killer whales use seaweed tools in never-before-seen grooming behavior

Tue, 24 Jun 2025 09:44:46 EDT

Southern resident killer whales have been caught on drone video crafting kelp tools to groom one anotherâ??an unprecedented behavior among marine mammals. This suggests a deeper social and cultural complexity in these endangered whales than scientists previously realized.

Africa's pangolin crisis: The delicacy that's driving a species to the brink

Sat, 14 Jun 2025 03:42:33 EDT

Study suggests that appetite for bushmeat -- rather than black market for scales to use in traditional Chinese medicine -- is driving West Africa's illegal hunting of one of the world's most threatened mammals. Interviews with hundreds of hunters show pangolins overwhelmingly caught for food, with majority of scales thrown away. Survey work shows pangolin is considered the most palatable meat in the region.

Two plant species invent the same chemically complex and medically interesting substance

Tue, 03 Jun 2025 11:48:18 EDT

The biosynthesis of the great variety of natural plant products has not yet been elucidated for many medically interesting substances. In a new study, an international team of researchers was able to show how ipecacuanha alkaloids, substances used in traditional medicine, are synthesized. They compared two distantly related plant species and were able to show that although both plant species use a comparable chemical approach, the enzymes they need for synthesis differ and a different starting material is used. Further investigations revealed that the biosynthetic pathways of these complex chemical compounds have developed independently in the two species. These results help to enable the synthesis of these and related substances on a larger scale for medical use.

Mammals didn't walk upright until lateâ??here's what fossils reveal

Wed, 25 Jun 2025 10:14:10 EDT

The shift from lizard-like sprawl to upright walking in mammals wasnâ??t a smooth climb up the evolutionary ladder. Instead, it was a messy saga full of unexpected detours. Using new bone-mapping tech, researchers discovered that early mammal ancestors explored wildly different postures before modern upright walking finally emergedâ??much later than once believed.

Extreme weather is wiping out amphibiansâ??Hereâ??s where itâ??s worst

Fri, 06 Jun 2025 23:12:57 EDT

Frogs, salamanders, and other amphibians are not just battling habitat loss and pollution they're now also contending with increasingly brutal heat waves and droughts. A sweeping 40-year study shows a direct link between the rise in extreme weather events and the growing number of species landing on the endangered list. Europe, the Amazon, and Madagascar have become danger zones, with amphibians unable to adapt quickly enough. But there s hope scientists are calling for focused conservation efforts like habitat restoration and micro-refuges to help these vulnerable creatures survive.

New study reveals how competition between algae is transforming the Gulf of Maine

Thu, 22 May 2025 16:27:00 EDT

New research shows how rapidly proliferating turf algae are waging 'chemical warfare' to inhibit the recovery of kelp forests along Maine's warming coast.

When the forest is no longer a home -- forest bats seek refuge in settlements

Wed, 28 May 2025 13:15:57 EDT

Many bat species native to Germany, such as the Leisler's bat, are forest specialists. However, as it is becoming increasingly hard for them to find tree hollows in forest plantations, so they are moving to settlements instead. Using high-resolution GPS data from bats, a team led by scientists has analyzed in greater detail than ever before how Leisler's bats use their habitats, which tree species they look for when searching a roost, and which forest types they avoid. They found that these bats increasingly seek refuge in old trees in urban areas and in old buildings such as churches.

Scientists have figured out how extinct giant ground sloths got so big and where it all went wrong

Thu, 22 May 2025 16:25:38 EDT

Scientists have analyzed ancient DNA and compared more than 400 fossils from 17 natural history museums to figure out how and why extinct sloths got so big.

Why past mass extinctions didn't break ecosystemsâ??But this one might

Mon, 09 Jun 2025 02:06:20 EDT

For millions of years, large herbivores like mastodons and giant deer shaped the Earth's ecosystems, which astonishingly stayed stable despite extinctions and upheavals. A new study reveals that only twice in 60 million years did environmental shifts dramatically reorganize these systems once with a continental land bridge, and again with climate-driven habitat change. Yet the ecosystems adapted, with new species taking on old roles. Now, a third, human-driven tipping point threatens that ancient resilience.

'Future-proofing' crops will require urgent, consistent effort

Thu, 29 May 2025 12:47:40 EDT

A professor of crop sciences and of plant biology describes research efforts to 'future-proof' the crops that are essential to feeding a hungry world in a changing climate. Long, who has spent decades studying the process of photosynthesis and finding ways to improve it, provides an overview of key scientific findings that offer a ray of hope.

Cannabis pangenome reveals potential for medicinal and industrial use

Thu, 29 May 2025 12:42:15 EDT

Scientists analyzed almost 200 cannabis genomes to create the most comprehensive, high-quality, detailed genetic atlas of the plant to date. The atlas reveals unprecedented diversity and complexity within the species, sets the stage for advances in cannabis-based agriculture, medicine, and industry, and builds on a 10,000-year long relationship between humans and cannabis, showing that cannabis can be as important as other crops like corn or wheat.

Amphibian road mortality drops by over 80% with wildlife underpasses, study shows

Thu, 29 May 2025 12:44:47 EDT

A new study shows that wildlife underpass tunnels dramatically reduce deaths of frog, salamanders, and other amphibians migrating across roads.

What a dinosaur ate 100 million years agoâ??Preserved in a fossilized time capsule

Tue, 10 Jun 2025 08:00:25 EDT

A prehistoric digestive time capsule has been unearthed in Australia: plant fossils found inside a sauropod dinosaur offer the first definitive glimpse into what these giant creatures actually ate. The remarkably preserved gut contents reveal that sauropods were massive, indiscriminate plant-eaters who swallowed leaves, conifer shoots, and even flowering plants without chewing relying on their gut microbes to break it all down.

Satellite tracking of 12,000 marine animals reveals ocean giants are in trouble

Sat, 07 Jun 2025 23:18:39 EDT

A massive global collaboration has tracked over 12,000 marine animals from whales to turtles to create one of the most detailed movement maps of ocean giants ever assembled. The project, MegaMove, highlights how animal migrations intersect with fishing, shipping, and pollution, revealing alarming gaps in current ocean protections. Even if 30% of the oceans were protected, most critical habitats would still be exposed to threats.

Does planting trees really help cool the planet?

Thu, 29 May 2025 12:46:28 EDT

Replanting forests can help cool the planet even more than some scientists once believed, especially in the tropics. But even if every tree lost since the mid-19th century is replanted, the total effect won't cancel out human-generated warming.

Agriculture in forests can provide climate and economic dividends

Thu, 29 May 2025 14:57:25 EDT

Forest-based agroforestry can restore forests, promote livelihoods, and combat climate change, but emerging agroforestry initiatives focusing only on tree planting is leading to missed opportunities to support beneficial outcomes of forest management, scientists found.

Koalas on the brink: Precision DNA test offers a lifeline to Australiaâ??s icons

Sat, 14 Jun 2025 12:19:55 EDT

A University of Queensland-led project has developed a tool to standardise genetic testing of koala populations, providing a significant boost to conservation and recovery efforts.

These 545-million-year-old fossil trails just rewrote the story of evolution

Fri, 27 Jun 2025 09:40:44 EDT

A groundbreaking study suggests that the famous Cambrian explosionâ??the dramatic burst of diverse animal lifeâ??might have actually started millions of years earlier than we thought. By analyzing ancient trace fossils, researchers uncovered evidence of complex, mobile organisms thriving 545 million years ago, well before the traditionally accepted timeline. These early creatures likely had segmented bodies, muscle systems, and even directional movement, signaling a surprising level of biological sophistication. Their behavior and mobility, preserved in fossil trails, offer new insight into how complex life evolved, potentially rewriting one of the most important chapters in Earthâ??s evolutionary history.

Something more toxic than gators is hiding in the swamps

Thu, 12 Jun 2025 03:15:58 EDT

Mercury contamination is surfacing as a serious concern in parts of Georgia and South Carolina, particularly in regions like the Okefenokee Swamp. University of Georgia researchers found alarmingly high levels of the neurotoxic metal in alligators, especially in older individuals and even hatchlings suggesting the toxin is passed both up the food chain and through generations. These ancient reptiles act as environmental indicators, raising red flags for the broader ecosystem and potentially for humans who fish or hunt nearby.

Even birds can't outfly climate change

Wed, 28 May 2025 13:15:36 EDT

As rising global temperatures alter ecosystems worldwide, animal species usually have two choices: adapt to changing local conditions or flee to a cooler clime. Ecologists have long assumed that the world's bird species were best equipped to respond to the pressures of climate change simply because they have the option of flying to higher altitudes or towards global poles. But a new study finds that few bird species are able to escape the realities of a warming world.

Scientists find a new way to help plants fight diseases

Fri, 30 May 2025 12:39:47 EDT

Laboratory could improve crop resilience In a discovery three decades in the making, scientists have acquired detailed knowledge about the internal structures and mode of regulation for a specialized protein and are proceeding to develop tools that can capitalize on its ability to help plants combat a wide range of diseases. The work, which exploits a natural process where plant cells die on purpose to help the host plant stay healthy, is expected to have wide applications in the agricultural sector, offering new ways to protect major food crops from a variety of devastating diseases, the scientists said.

Scientists uncover 230 giant ocean viruses that hijack photosynthesis

Fri, 06 Jun 2025 19:32:28 EDT

Scientists have uncovered over 200 new giant viruses lurking in ocean waters that not only help shape marine ecosystems but also manipulate photosynthesis in algae. These massive viruses once nearly invisible to science are now being exposed using powerful supercomputing and a new tool called BEREN. By studying these viruses, researchers hope to predict harmful algal blooms and even explore biotech applications from the novel enzymes found in these viral genomes.

83% of Earthâ??s climate-critical fungi are still unknown

Sun, 15 Jun 2025 02:06:07 EDT

Underground fungi may be one of Earth s most powerful and overlooked allies in the fight against climate change, yet most of them remain unknown to science. Known only by DNA, these "dark taxa" make up a shocking 83% of ectomycorrhizal species fungi that help forests store carbon and thrive. Their hotspots lie in tropical forests and other underfunded regions. Without names, they re invisible to conservation efforts. But scientists are urging more DNA sequencing and global collaboration to bring these critical organisms into the light before their habitats, or the fungi themselves, disappear forever.

Long shot science leads to revised age for land-animal ancestor

Thu, 29 May 2025 19:46:48 EDT

The fossils of ancient salamander-like creatures in Scotland are among the most well-preserved examples of early stem tetrapods -- some of the first animals to make the transition from water to land. Thanks to new research, scientists believe that these creatures are 14 million years older than previously thought. The new age -- dating back to 346 million years ago -- adds to the significance of the find because it places the specimens in a mysterious hole in the fossil record called Romer's Gap.

Defying Darwin: Scientists discover worms rewrote their DNA to survive on land

Wed, 18 Jun 2025 09:44:52 EDT

New research is shaking up our understanding of evolution by revealing that some species may not evolve gradually at all. Instead, scientists discovered that certain marine worms experienced an explosive genetic makeover when they transitioned to life on land over 200 million years ago. Their entire genome broke into pieces and was randomly reassembled an event so extreme it stunned researchers. This radical shift supports the theory of "punctuated equilibrium," where species remain unchanged for ages and then suddenly leap forward.

Can these endangered lizards beat the heat? Scientists test bold relocation plan

Thu, 26 Jun 2025 09:43:41 EDT

South Australiaâ??s tiny pygmy bluetongue skink is baking in a warming, drying homeland, so Flinders University scientists have tried a bold fixâ??move it. Three separate populations were shifted from the parched north to cooler, greener sites farther south. At first the lizards reacted differentlyâ??nervous northerners diving for cover, laid-back southerners basking in damp burrowsâ??but after two years most are settling in, suggesting they can ultimately thrive.

Europe's most complete stegosaurian skull unearthed in Teruel, Spain

Wed, 28 May 2025 13:21:11 EDT

Palaeontologists have analyzed the most complete stegosaurian skull ever found in Europe and rewritten the evolutionary history of this iconic group of dinosaurs.

Cluck once, and the river shakes: Inside the Amazonâ??s giant snake saga

Mon, 16 Jun 2025 04:02:35 EDT

A lifelong fascination with nature and fieldwork led this researcher to the world of ethnobiology a field where ecology, culture, and community come together. Investigating how local people relate to species like the anaconda, their work blends traditional knowledge with scientific methods for better conservation. The tale of the mythic Great Snake morphs into economic concerns over vanishing chickens, revealing how cultural beliefs and practical needs coexist.

The ocean seems to be getting darker

Tue, 27 May 2025 12:44:38 EDT

Scientists, who have spent more than a decade examining the impact of artificial light at night on the world's coasts and oceans, have shown that more than one-fifth of the global ocean -- an area spanning more than 75 million sq km -- has been the subject of ocean darkening over the past two decades. Ocean darkening occurs when changes in the optical properties of the ocean reduce the depth of its photic zones, home to 90% of all marine life and places where sunlight and moonlight drive ecological interactions.

Fruit-eating mastodons? Ancient fossils confirm a long-lost ecological alliance

Sat, 14 Jun 2025 12:19:47 EDT

Ten thousand years after mastodons disappeared, scientists have unearthed powerful fossil evidence proving these elephant cousins were vital seed spreaders for large-fruited trees in South America. Using dental wear, isotope analysis, and fossilized plant residue, researchers confirmed that mastodons regularly consumed fruit supporting a decades-old theory that many tropical plants evolved alongside giant animals. The extinction of these megafauna left a permanent ecological void, with some plants now teetering on the edge of extinction. Their story isn t just prehistoric it s a warning for today s conservation efforts.

Birds nested in Arctic alongside dinosaurs

Thu, 29 May 2025 15:54:27 EDT

Spring in the Arctic brings forth a plethora of peeps and downy hatchlings as millions of birds gather to raise their young. The same was true 73 million years ago, according to a new article. The paper documents the earliest-known example of birds nesting in the polar regions.

Trees vs. disease: Tree cover reduces mosquito-borne health risk

Wed, 28 May 2025 21:42:28 EDT

A study finds small-scale tree cover in Costa Rica boosts biodiversity while limiting dangerous mosquito species.

Tiny creatures, massive impact: How zooplankton store 65 million tonnes of carbon annually

Fri, 27 Jun 2025 08:51:43 EDT

Zooplankton like copepods arenâ??t just fish foodâ??theyâ??re carbon-hauling powerhouses. By diving deep into the ocean each winter, theyâ??re secretly stashing 65 million tonnes of carbon far below the surface, helping fight climate change in a way scientists are only just starting to understand.

The 10,000-mile march through fire that made dinosaurs possible

Fri, 13 Jun 2025 01:39:03 EDT

Despite Earth's most devastating mass extinction wiping out over 80% of marine life and half of land species, a group of early reptiles called archosauromorphs not only survived but thrived, venturing across the supposedly lifeless tropics to eventually evolve into the dinosaurs and crocodiles we know today. Armed with a groundbreaking model dubbed TARDIS, researchers have reconstructed their ancient dispersal routes, revealing how these resilient reptiles conquered a hostile, post-apocalyptic Earth.